Churn Prediction

EDA & Cleaning

1. Explore

# Load required libraries
library(tidyverse)  # For data manipulation and visualization

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library(caret)      # For machine learning and preprocessing

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library(pROC)       # For ROC AUC

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library(corrplot)   # For correlation matrix

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library(gridExtra)  # For arranging plots

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library(xgboost)    # For XGBoost model

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# Set random seed for reproducibility
set.seed(123)

# 1. Load and inspect the data
df <- read.csv("Customer_Churn.csv")

# See the structure and sample rows
head(df)

# Check column types and missing values
str(df)

## 'data.frame':    7043 obs. of  21 variables:
##  $ customerID      : chr  "7590-VHVEG" "5575-GNVDE" "3668-QPYBK" "7795-CFOCW" ...
##  $ gender          : chr  "Female" "Male" "Male" "Male" ...
##  $ SeniorCitizen   : int  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
##  $ Partner         : chr  "Yes" "No" "No" "No" ...
##  $ Dependents      : chr  "No" "No" "No" "No" ...
##  $ tenure          : int  1 34 2 45 2 8 22 10 28 62 ...
##  $ PhoneService    : chr  "No" "Yes" "Yes" "No" ...
##  $ MultipleLines   : chr  "No phone service" "No" "No" "No phone service" ...
##  $ InternetService : chr  "DSL" "DSL" "DSL" "DSL" ...
##  $ OnlineSecurity  : chr  "No" "Yes" "Yes" "Yes" ...
##  $ OnlineBackup    : chr  "Yes" "No" "Yes" "No" ...
##  $ DeviceProtection: chr  "No" "Yes" "No" "Yes" ...
##  $ TechSupport     : chr  "No" "No" "No" "Yes" ...
##  $ StreamingTV     : chr  "No" "No" "No" "No" ...
##  $ StreamingMovies : chr  "No" "No" "No" "No" ...
##  $ Contract        : chr  "Month-to-month" "One year" "Month-to-month" "One year" ...
##  $ PaperlessBilling: chr  "Yes" "No" "Yes" "No" ...
##  $ PaymentMethod   : chr  "Electronic check" "Mailed check" "Mailed check" "Bank transfer (automatic)" ...
##  $ MonthlyCharges  : num  29.9 57 53.9 42.3 70.7 ...
##  $ TotalCharges    : num  29.9 1889.5 108.2 1840.8 151.7 ...
##  $ Churn           : chr  "No" "No" "Yes" "No" ...

# Summary stats for numeric columns
summary(df)

##   customerID           gender          SeniorCitizen      Partner         
##  Length:7043        Length:7043        Min.   :0.0000   Length:7043       
##  Class :character   Class :character   1st Qu.:0.0000   Class :character  
##  Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Median :0.0000   Mode  :character  
##                                        Mean   :0.1621                     
##                                        3rd Qu.:0.0000                     
##                                        Max.   :1.0000                     
##                                                                           
##   Dependents            tenure      PhoneService       MultipleLines     
##  Length:7043        Min.   : 0.00   Length:7043        Length:7043       
##  Class :character   1st Qu.: 9.00   Class :character   Class :character  
##  Mode  :character   Median :29.00   Mode  :character   Mode  :character  
##                     Mean   :32.37                                        
##                     3rd Qu.:55.00                                        
##                     Max.   :72.00                                        
##                                                                          
##  InternetService    OnlineSecurity     OnlineBackup       DeviceProtection  
##  Length:7043        Length:7043        Length:7043        Length:7043       
##  Class :character   Class :character   Class :character   Class :character  
##  Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Mode  :character  
##                                                                             
##                                                                             
##                                                                             
##                                                                             
##  TechSupport        StreamingTV        StreamingMovies      Contract        
##  Length:7043        Length:7043        Length:7043        Length:7043       
##  Class :character   Class :character   Class :character   Class :character  
##  Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Mode  :character  
##                                                                             
##                                                                             
##                                                                             
##                                                                             
##  PaperlessBilling   PaymentMethod      MonthlyCharges    TotalCharges   
##  Length:7043        Length:7043        Min.   : 18.25   Min.   :  18.8  
##  Class :character   Class :character   1st Qu.: 35.50   1st Qu.: 401.4  
##  Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Median : 70.35   Median :1397.5  
##                                        Mean   : 64.76   Mean   :2283.3  
##                                        3rd Qu.: 89.85   3rd Qu.:3794.7  
##                                        Max.   :118.75   Max.   :8684.8  
##                                                         NA's   :11      
##     Churn          
##  Length:7043       
##  Class :character  
##  Mode  :character  
##                    
##                    
##                    
## 

2. Missing Values

# 2. Check for missing values
missing_values <- colSums(is.na(df))
missing_percent <- (missing_values / nrow(df)) * 100

# Combine for easy viewing
missing_df <- data.frame(
  Missing_Values = missing_values,
  Percent_Missing = missing_percent
)

# Filter only columns with missing values
missing_df <- missing_df[missing_df$Missing_Values > 0, ]
cat("Missing Values Summary:\n")

## Missing Values Summary:

print(missing_df)

##              Missing_Values Percent_Missing
## TotalCharges             11       0.1561834

3. Total Charges column

Rows with tenure=0, total charges should be equal to monthly charges.

# 3. Handle TotalCharges column
# Check datatype of TotalCharges
cat("TotalCharges class before:", class(df$TotalCharges), "\n")

## TotalCharges class before: numeric

# Identify non-numeric rows before conversion
non_numeric_totalcharges <- df[!is.numeric(as.numeric(df$TotalCharges, na.rm = TRUE)) & !is.na(df$TotalCharges), ]
cat("Rows with non-numeric TotalCharges:\n")

## Rows with non-numeric TotalCharges:

print(non_numeric_totalcharges[, c("customerID", "tenure", "MonthlyCharges", "TotalCharges")])

## [1] customerID     tenure         MonthlyCharges TotalCharges  
## <0 rows> (or 0-length row.names)

# Convert TotalCharges to numeric, setting non-numeric to NA
df$TotalCharges <- as.numeric(df$TotalCharges)

# Print rows with NA in TotalCharges after conversion
cat("\nRows with NA in TotalCharges after conversion:\n")

## 
## Rows with NA in TotalCharges after conversion:

print(df[is.na(df$TotalCharges), c("customerID", "tenure", "MonthlyCharges", "TotalCharges")])

##      customerID tenure MonthlyCharges TotalCharges
## 489  4472-LVYGI      0          52.55           NA
## 754  3115-CZMZD      0          20.25           NA
## 937  5709-LVOEQ      0          80.85           NA
## 1083 4367-NUYAO      0          25.75           NA
## 1341 1371-DWPAZ      0          56.05           NA
## 3332 7644-OMVMY      0          19.85           NA
## 3827 3213-VVOLG      0          25.35           NA
## 4381 2520-SGTTA      0          20.00           NA
## 5219 2923-ARZLG      0          19.70           NA
## 6671 4075-WKNIU      0          73.35           NA
## 6755 2775-SEFEE      0          61.90           NA

# Set TotalCharges = MonthlyCharges where tenure is 0
df$TotalCharges[df$tenure == 0] <- df$MonthlyCharges[df$tenure == 0]

# Verify final class
cat("\nTotalCharges class after:", class(df$TotalCharges), "\n")

## 
## TotalCharges class after: numeric

# Verify no NA values remain
cat("Number of NA values in TotalCharges after processing:", sum(is.na(df$TotalCharges)), "\n")

## Number of NA values in TotalCharges after processing: 0

Duplicates in Customer ID column

# 4. Check duplicates in customerID
duplicate_customers <- sum(duplicated(df$customerID))
cat("Number of duplicate customerID entries:", duplicate_customers, "\n")

## Number of duplicate customerID entries: 0

Convert SeniorCitizen from 0,1 to ‘No’,‘Yes’

cat("Before conversion:\n")

## Before conversion:

cat("SeniorCitizen class:", class(df$SeniorCitizen), "\n")

## SeniorCitizen class: integer

cat("SeniorCitizen unique values:\n")

## SeniorCitizen unique values:

print(table(df$SeniorCitizen, useNA = "ifany"))

## 
##    0    1 
## 5901 1142

df$SeniorCitizen <- factor(ifelse(df$SeniorCitizen == 0, "No", "Yes"))

cat("\nAfter conversion:\n")

## 
## After conversion:

cat("SeniorCitizen class:", class(df$SeniorCitizen), "\n")

## SeniorCitizen class: factor

cat("SeniorCitizen unique values:\n")

## SeniorCitizen unique values:

print(table(df$SeniorCitizen, useNA = "ifany"))

## 
##   No  Yes 
## 5901 1142

Numrical and categorical columns

# 6. Get categorical columns (except customerID)
categorical_cols <- names(df)[sapply(df, is.character) | sapply(df, is.factor)]
categorical_cols <- categorical_cols[categorical_cols != "customerID"]

# Display unique values for each categorical column
for (col in categorical_cols) {
  cat("\n", col, "unique values:\n")
  print(table(df[[col]], useNA = "ifany"))
}

## 
##  gender unique values:
## 
## Female   Male 
##   3488   3555 
## 
##  SeniorCitizen unique values:
## 
##   No  Yes 
## 5901 1142 
## 
##  Partner unique values:
## 
##   No  Yes 
## 3641 3402 
## 
##  Dependents unique values:
## 
##   No  Yes 
## 4933 2110 
## 
##  PhoneService unique values:
## 
##   No  Yes 
##  682 6361 
## 
##  MultipleLines unique values:
## 
##               No No phone service              Yes 
##             3390              682             2971 
## 
##  InternetService unique values:
## 
##         DSL Fiber optic          No 
##        2421        3096        1526 
## 
##  OnlineSecurity unique values:
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##                3498                1526                2019 
## 
##  OnlineBackup unique values:
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##                3088                1526                2429 
## 
##  DeviceProtection unique values:
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##                3095                1526                2422 
## 
##  TechSupport unique values:
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##                3473                1526                2044 
## 
##  StreamingTV unique values:
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##                2810                1526                2707 
## 
##  StreamingMovies unique values:
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##                2785                1526                2732 
## 
##  Contract unique values:
## 
## Month-to-month       One year       Two year 
##           3875           1473           1695 
## 
##  PaperlessBilling unique values:
## 
##   No  Yes 
## 2872 4171 
## 
##  PaymentMethod unique values:
## 
## Bank transfer (automatic)   Credit card (automatic)          Electronic check 
##                      1544                      1522                      2365 
##              Mailed check 
##                      1612 
## 
##  Churn unique values:
## 
##   No  Yes 
## 5174 1869

# 7. Numeric columns analysis
numeric_cols <- names(df)[sapply(df, is.numeric) & names(df) != "customerID"]

# Summary stats
cat("Descriptive Stats:\n")

## Descriptive Stats:

print(summary(df[, numeric_cols]))

##      tenure      MonthlyCharges    TotalCharges   
##  Min.   : 0.00   Min.   : 18.25   Min.   :  18.8  
##  1st Qu.: 9.00   1st Qu.: 35.50   1st Qu.: 398.6  
##  Median :29.00   Median : 70.35   Median :1394.5  
##  Mean   :32.37   Mean   : 64.76   Mean   :2279.8  
##  3rd Qu.:55.00   3rd Qu.: 89.85   3rd Qu.:3786.6  
##  Max.   :72.00   Max.   :118.75   Max.   :8684.8

# Boxplots to visualize outliers
for (col in numeric_cols) {
  p <- ggplot(df, aes_string(y = col)) +
    geom_boxplot() +
    ggtitle(paste("Boxplot of", col))
  print(p)
}

## Warning: `aes_string()` was deprecated in ggplot2 3.0.0.
## ℹ Please use tidy evaluation idioms with `aes()`.
## ℹ See also `vignette("ggplot2-in-packages")` for more information.
## This warning is displayed once every 8 hours.
## Call `lifecycle::last_lifecycle_warnings()` to see where this warning was
## generated.

# 8. Bar plots and proportions for categorical columns
for (col in categorical_cols) {
  p <- ggplot(df, aes_string(x = col)) +
    geom_bar() +
    ggtitle(paste("Distribution of", col)) +
    theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 30, hjust = 1))
  print(p)
  
  cat("\nProportions for", col, ":\n")
  print(prop.table(table(df[[col]])) * 100)
}

## 
## Proportions for gender :
## 
##   Female     Male 
## 49.52435 50.47565

## 
## Proportions for SeniorCitizen :
## 
##       No      Yes 
## 83.78532 16.21468

## 
## Proportions for Partner :
## 
##       No      Yes 
## 51.69672 48.30328

## 
## Proportions for Dependents :
## 
##       No      Yes 
## 70.04118 29.95882

## 
## Proportions for PhoneService :
## 
##        No       Yes 
##  9.683374 90.316626

## 
## Proportions for MultipleLines :
## 
##               No No phone service              Yes 
##        48.132898         9.683374        42.183729

## 
## Proportions for InternetService :
## 
##         DSL Fiber optic          No 
##    34.37456    43.95854    21.66690

## 
## Proportions for OnlineSecurity :
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##            49.66634            21.66690            28.66676

## 
## Proportions for OnlineBackup :
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##            43.84495            21.66690            34.48814

## 
## Proportions for DeviceProtection :
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##            43.94434            21.66690            34.38875

## 
## Proportions for TechSupport :
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##            49.31137            21.66690            29.02172

## 
## Proportions for StreamingTV :
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##            39.89777            21.66690            38.43533

## 
## Proportions for StreamingMovies :
## 
##                  No No internet service                 Yes 
##            39.54281            21.66690            38.79029

## 
## Proportions for Contract :
## 
## Month-to-month       One year       Two year 
##       55.01917       20.91438       24.06645

## 
## Proportions for PaperlessBilling :
## 
##       No      Yes 
## 40.77808 59.22192

## 
## Proportions for PaymentMethod :
## 
## Bank transfer (automatic)   Credit card (automatic)          Electronic check 
##                  21.92248                  21.61011                  33.57944 
##              Mailed check 
##                  22.88797

## 
## Proportions for Churn :
## 
##       No      Yes 
## 73.46301 26.53699

# 9. Histograms and stats for numeric features
for (col in numeric_cols) {
  p <- ggplot(df, aes_string(x = col)) +
    geom_histogram(bins = 30, aes(y = ..density..)) +
    geom_density(color = "blue") +
    ggtitle(paste("Distribution of", col))
  print(p)
  
  cat("\nSummary statistics for", col, ":\n")
  print(summary(df[[col]]))
  cat("Skewness:", psych::skew(df[[col]]), "\n")
}

## Warning: The dot-dot notation (`..density..`) was deprecated in ggplot2 3.4.0.
## ℹ Please use `after_stat(density)` instead.
## This warning is displayed once every 8 hours.
## Call `lifecycle::last_lifecycle_warnings()` to see where this warning was
## generated.

## 
## Summary statistics for tenure :
##    Min. 1st Qu.  Median    Mean 3rd Qu.    Max. 
##    0.00    9.00   29.00   32.37   55.00   72.00 
## Skewness: 0.2394377

## 
## Summary statistics for MonthlyCharges :
##    Min. 1st Qu.  Median    Mean 3rd Qu.    Max. 
##   18.25   35.50   70.35   64.76   89.85  118.75 
## Skewness: -0.2204305

## 
## Summary statistics for TotalCharges :
##    Min. 1st Qu.  Median    Mean 3rd Qu.    Max. 
##    18.8   398.6  1394.5  2279.8  3786.6  8684.8 
## Skewness: 0.9629053

Churn Analysis

library(tidyverse)

# 10. Churn analysis by categorical variables
library(ggplot2)
library(dplyr)
library(viridis)

## Loading required package: viridisLite

# Assuming categorical_cols is a vector of categorical column names except "Churn"
categorical_cols <- setdiff(categorical_cols, "Churn")

for (col in categorical_cols) {
  churn_df <- df %>%
    filter(!is.na(.data[[col]]), !is.na(Churn)) %>%
    group_by(Category = .data[[col]], Churn) %>%   # Rename col in group_by
    summarise(Count = n(), .groups = "drop") %>%
    group_by(Category) %>%
    mutate(Proportion = Count / sum(Count)) %>%
    ungroup()
  
  # Plot stacked bar chart
  p <- ggplot(churn_df, aes(x = Category, y = Proportion, fill = Churn)) +
    geom_bar(stat = "identity", position = "stack") +
    ggtitle(paste("Churn by", col)) +
    ylab("Proportion") +
    theme(axis.text.x = element_text(angle = 30, hjust = 1)) +
    scale_fill_viridis_d()
  
  print(p)
}

# 11. Boxplots by Churn
for (col in numeric_cols) {
  p <- ggplot(df, aes_string(x = "Churn", y = col)) +
    geom_boxplot() +
    ggtitle(paste(col, "by Churn"))
  print(p)
}

# 12. Correlation matrix
correlation_matrix <- cor(df[, numeric_cols], use = "complete.obs")
corrplot(correlation_matrix, method = "color", type = "upper", tl.col = "black", tl.srt = 45,
         addCoef.col = "black", col = colorRampPalette(c("blue", "white", "red"))(200),
         title = "Correlation Matrix")

# 13. Statistical Tests
# T-test for numeric columns by Churn
for (col in numeric_cols) {
  cat("\nT-test for", col, "by Churn:\n")
  churn_yes <- df[[col]][df$Churn == "Yes"]
  churn_no <- df[[col]][df$Churn == "No"]
  print(t.test(churn_yes, churn_no))
}

## 
## T-test for tenure by Churn:
## 
##  Welch Two Sample t-test
## 
## data:  churn_yes and churn_no
## t = -34.824, df = 4048.3, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
##  -20.69378 -18.48789
## sample estimates:
## mean of x mean of y 
##  17.97913  37.56997 
## 
## 
## T-test for MonthlyCharges by Churn:
## 
##  Welch Two Sample t-test
## 
## data:  churn_yes and churn_no
## t = 18.408, df = 4135.8, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
##  11.77284 14.57957
## sample estimates:
## mean of x mean of y 
##  74.44133  61.26512 
## 
## 
## T-test for TotalCharges by Churn:
## 
##  Welch Two Sample t-test
## 
## data:  churn_yes and churn_no
## t = -18.709, df = 4040.1, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
##  -1124.9057  -911.5011
## sample estimates:
## mean of x mean of y 
##  1531.796  2549.999

# Mann-Whitney U test for numeric columns
for (col in numeric_cols) {
  cat("\nMann-Whitney U test for", col, "by Churn:\n")
  print(wilcox.test(df[[col]] ~ df$Churn))
}

## 
## Mann-Whitney U test for tenure by Churn:
## 
##  Wilcoxon rank sum test with continuity correction
## 
## data:  df[[col]] by df$Churn
## W = 7154668, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true location shift is not equal to 0
## 
## 
## Mann-Whitney U test for MonthlyCharges by Churn:
## 
##  Wilcoxon rank sum test with continuity correction
## 
## data:  df[[col]] by df$Churn
## W = 3667080, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true location shift is not equal to 0
## 
## 
## Mann-Whitney U test for TotalCharges by Churn:
## 
##  Wilcoxon rank sum test with continuity correction
## 
## data:  df[[col]] by df$Churn
## W = 6290411, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true location shift is not equal to 0

# Chi-square test for categorical columns
for (col in categorical_cols) {
  cat("\nChi-square test for", col, "and Churn:\n")
  contingency_table <- table(df[[col]], df$Churn)
  print(chisq.test(contingency_table))
}

## 
## Chi-square test for gender and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test with Yates' continuity correction
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 0.48408, df = 1, p-value = 0.4866
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for SeniorCitizen and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test with Yates' continuity correction
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 159.43, df = 1, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for Partner and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test with Yates' continuity correction
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 158.73, df = 1, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for Dependents and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test with Yates' continuity correction
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 189.13, df = 1, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for PhoneService and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test with Yates' continuity correction
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 0.91503, df = 1, p-value = 0.3388
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for MultipleLines and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 11.33, df = 2, p-value = 0.003464
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for InternetService and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 732.31, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for OnlineSecurity and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 850, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for OnlineBackup and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 601.81, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for DeviceProtection and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 558.42, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for TechSupport and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 828.2, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for StreamingTV and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 374.2, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for StreamingMovies and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 375.66, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for Contract and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 1184.6, df = 2, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for PaperlessBilling and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test with Yates' continuity correction
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 258.28, df = 1, p-value < 2.2e-16
## 
## 
## Chi-square test for PaymentMethod and Churn:
## 
##  Pearson's Chi-squared test
## 
## data:  contingency_table
## X-squared = 648.14, df = 3, p-value < 2.2e-16

# 14. Preprocessing for modeling
# Encode binary categorical columns
binary_cols <- c("gender", "Partner", "Dependents", "SeniorCitizen", "PhoneService", 
                 "PaperlessBilling", "Churn")

for (col in binary_cols) {
  if (col %in% names(df)) {
    df[[col]] <- as.numeric(factor(df[[col]], levels = c("No", "Yes", "Male", "Female"))) - 1
  }
}

Feature Engineering and Pre-processing

In Summary: This Code Chunk

Step	Task	Purpose
1	Select multi-class categorical columns	Prepare for one-hot encoding
2	Encode them with dummyVars()	Convert to machine-readable format
3	Combine with main dataframe	Finalize transformed feature set
4	Drop unnecessary columns	Reduce noise and redundancy
5	Scale numeric features	Normalize for ML models

# One-hot encoding for multi-category variables
multi_cat_cols <- c("MultipleLines", "InternetService", "OnlineSecurity", "OnlineBackup", 
                    "DeviceProtection", "TechSupport", "StreamingTV", "StreamingMovies", 
                    "Contract", "PaymentMethod")

# Create dummy variables
dummy_model <- dummyVars(~ ., data = df[multi_cat_cols], fullRank = TRUE)
df_dummies <- predict(dummy_model, df[multi_cat_cols])
df <- cbind(df[, !names(df) %in% multi_cat_cols], df_dummies)

# Drop non-predictive features
df <- df[, !names(df) %in% c("customerID", "gender", "PhoneService")]

# Scale numeric features
numeric_cols <- c("tenure", "MonthlyCharges", "TotalCharges")
df[numeric_cols] <- scale(df[numeric_cols])

Model evaluation pipeline

Step	Task	Purpose
1	Split data into train and test sets	Separate training and evaluation data
2	Convert target variable to factor	Ensure consistency in classification labels
3	Define cross-validation settings	Enable reliable model performance estimation
4	Train models (LogReg, RF, XGBoost)	Fit different algorithms to training data
5	Evaluate models using CV ROC AUC	Assess model performance during training
6	Predict on test set	Generate outcomes for unseen data
7	Compute confusion matrix and metrics	Evaluate accuracy, precision, F1, ROC AUC
8	Plot confusion matrices and ROC curves	Visualize model performance
9	Create and print comparison table	Summarize metrics across all models
10	Output Markdown table	Prepare for reporting or documentation

set.seed(123)
# 15. Train-test split
train_index <- createDataPartition(df$Churn, p = 0.8, list = FALSE)
X_train <- df[train_index, !names(df) %in% "Churn"]
y_train <- df[train_index, "Churn"]
X_test <- df[-train_index, !names(df) %in% "Churn"]
y_test <- df[-train_index, "Churn"]

# 16. Cross-validation for model evaluation
models <- list(
  "Logistic Regression" = trainControl(method = "cv", number = 5, summaryFunction = twoClassSummary, classProbs = TRUE),
  "Random Forest" = trainControl(method = "cv", number = 5, summaryFunction = twoClassSummary, classProbs = TRUE),
  "XGBoost" = trainControl(method = "cv", number = 5, summaryFunction = twoClassSummary, classProbs = TRUE)
)

# Load required libraries
library(caret)
library(pROC)
library(ggplot2)
library(dplyr)
library(knitr)  # For Markdown table

# Wrap confusion matrix plot in a function
plot_confusion_matrix <- function(y_true, y_pred, model_name) {
  cm <- table(Predicted = y_pred, Actual = y_true)
  ggplot(as.data.frame(cm), aes(x = Predicted, y = Actual, fill = Freq)) +
    geom_tile() +
    geom_text(aes(label = Freq)) +
    scale_fill_gradient(low = "white", high = "blue") +
    ggtitle(paste("Confusion Matrix:", model_name)) +
    theme_minimal()
}

# Format y_train and y_test
y_train <- factor(y_train, levels = c(0, 1), labels = c("No", "Yes"))
y_test <- factor(y_test, levels = c(0, 1), labels = c("No", "Yes"))


#Training models

# Actually train the models


log_reg <- train(
  x = X_train,
  y = y_train,
  method = "glm",
  family = "binomial",
  trControl = models[["Logistic Regression"]],
  metric = "ROC"
)

rf_model <- train(
  x = X_train,
  y = y_train,
  method = "rf",
  trControl = models[["Random Forest"]],
  metric = "ROC"
)

xgb_model <- train(
  x = X_train,
  y = y_train,
  method = "xgbTree",
  trControl = models[["XGBoost"]],
  metric = "ROC"
)

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## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:31] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:32] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:33] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:34] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:35] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:36] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:37] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:38] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:39] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:40] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:41] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:42] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:43] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:44] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:45] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:46] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:47] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:48] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:49] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:50] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:51] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:52] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:53] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:54] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
## [15:56:55] WARNING: src/c_api/c_api.cc:935: `ntree_limit` is deprecated, use `iteration_range` instead.
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# Model list
model_list <- list(
  "Logistic Regression" = log_reg,
  "Random Forest" = rf_model,
  "XGBoost" = xgb_model
)

# --- Model Evaluation (Cross-validation) ---
cat("\nCross-Validation ROC AUC Scores (5-fold):\n")

## 
## Cross-Validation ROC AUC Scores (5-fold):

for (name in names(model_list)) {
  model <- model_list[[name]]
  # Extract ROC AUC scores based on model type
  if (name == "Logistic Regression") {
    cv_scores <- model$results$ROC
  } else {
    cv_scores <- model$resample$ROC
    if (length(cv_scores) == 0 || all(is.na(cv_scores))) {
      match_params <- apply(model$results[, names(model$bestTune), drop = FALSE], 1, function(row) {
        all(row == model$bestTune)
      })
      cv_scores <- model$results$ROC[match_params]
    }
  }
  cat(name, ": Mean ROC AUC =", round(mean(cv_scores, na.rm = TRUE), 4), 
      "(±", round(sd(cv_scores, na.rm = TRUE), 4), ")\n")
}

## Logistic Regression : Mean ROC AUC = 0.8396 (± NA )
## Random Forest : Mean ROC AUC = 0.8293 (± 0.0107 )
## XGBoost : Mean ROC AUC = 0.8461 (± 0.0141 )

# --- Test Set Evaluation with Comparison Table ---
cat("\n=== Test Set Evaluation ===\n")

## 
## === Test Set Evaluation ===

# Initialize a list to store metrics
metrics_list <- list()

for (name in names(model_list)) {
  model <- model_list[[name]]
  y_pred <- predict(model, X_test)
  y_proba <- predict(model, X_test, type = "prob")[, "Yes"]
  
  # Compute metrics
  cm <- confusionMatrix(y_pred, y_test, positive = "Yes")
  auc_roc <- roc(y_test, y_proba, quiet = TRUE)$auc
  
  # Extract metrics
  accuracy <- cm$overall["Accuracy"]
  precision <- cm$byClass["Precision"]
  recall <- cm$byClass["Recall"]  # <-- Added Recall
  f1_score <- cm$byClass["F1"]
  
  # Store metrics as a named vector
  metrics_list[[name]] <- c(
    Accuracy = as.numeric(accuracy),
    AUC_ROC = as.numeric(auc_roc),
    Precision = as.numeric(precision),
    Recall = as.numeric(recall),     # <-- Store Recall
    F1_Score = as.numeric(f1_score)
  )
  
  # Print confusion matrix and plot
  cat("\n--", name, "--\n")
  cat("ROC AUC Score:", round(auc_roc, 4), "\n")
  print(cm)
  print(plot_confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred, name))
  
  # Plot ROC Curves
  plot(roc(y_test, y_proba), main = paste("ROC Curve:", name))
}

## 
## -- Logistic Regression --
## ROC AUC Score: 0.8619 
## Confusion Matrix and Statistics
## 
##           Reference
## Prediction  No Yes
##        No  960 154
##        Yes  97 197
##                                           
##                Accuracy : 0.8217          
##                  95% CI : (0.8007, 0.8414)
##     No Information Rate : 0.7507          
##     P-Value [Acc > NIR] : 1.066e-10       
##                                           
##                   Kappa : 0.4964          
##                                           
##  Mcnemar's Test P-Value : 0.0004083       
##                                           
##             Sensitivity : 0.5613          
##             Specificity : 0.9082          
##          Pos Pred Value : 0.6701          
##          Neg Pred Value : 0.8618          
##              Prevalence : 0.2493          
##          Detection Rate : 0.1399          
##    Detection Prevalence : 0.2088          
##       Balanced Accuracy : 0.7347          
##                                           
##        'Positive' Class : Yes             
## 

## Setting levels: control = No, case = Yes

## Setting direction: controls < cases

## 
## -- Random Forest --
## ROC AUC Score: 0.8488 
## Confusion Matrix and Statistics
## 
##           Reference
## Prediction   No  Yes
##        No  1009  220
##        Yes   48  131
##                                           
##                Accuracy : 0.8097          
##                  95% CI : (0.7882, 0.8299)
##     No Information Rate : 0.7507          
##     P-Value [Acc > NIR] : 8.542e-08       
##                                           
##                   Kappa : 0.392           
##                                           
##  Mcnemar's Test P-Value : < 2.2e-16       
##                                           
##             Sensitivity : 0.37322         
##             Specificity : 0.95459         
##          Pos Pred Value : 0.73184         
##          Neg Pred Value : 0.82099         
##              Prevalence : 0.24929         
##          Detection Rate : 0.09304         
##    Detection Prevalence : 0.12713         
##       Balanced Accuracy : 0.66390         
##                                           
##        'Positive' Class : Yes             
## 

## Setting levels: control = No, case = Yes
## Setting direction: controls < cases

## 
## -- XGBoost --
## ROC AUC Score: 0.8659 
## Confusion Matrix and Statistics
## 
##           Reference
## Prediction  No Yes
##        No  979 155
##        Yes  78 196
##                                           
##                Accuracy : 0.8345          
##                  95% CI : (0.8141, 0.8536)
##     No Information Rate : 0.7507          
##     P-Value [Acc > NIR] : 2.006e-14       
##                                           
##                   Kappa : 0.5229          
##                                           
##  Mcnemar's Test P-Value : 6.394e-07       
##                                           
##             Sensitivity : 0.5584          
##             Specificity : 0.9262          
##          Pos Pred Value : 0.7153          
##          Neg Pred Value : 0.8633          
##              Prevalence : 0.2493          
##          Detection Rate : 0.1392          
##    Detection Prevalence : 0.1946          
##       Balanced Accuracy : 0.7423          
##                                           
##        'Positive' Class : Yes             
## 

## Setting levels: control = No, case = Yes
## Setting direction: controls < cases

# Create comparison table
comparison_table <- bind_rows(metrics_list, .id = "Model") %>%
  mutate(
    Accuracy = round(Accuracy, 4),
    AUC_ROC = round(AUC_ROC, 4),
    Precision = round(Precision, 4),
    Recall = round(Recall, 4),             # <-- Round Recall
    F1_Score = round(F1_Score, 4)
  ) %>%
  select(Model, Accuracy, AUC_ROC, Precision, Recall, F1_Score)  # <-- Add Recall column

# Print comparison table
cat("\n=== Model Comparison Table ===\n")

## 
## === Model Comparison Table ===

print(comparison_table)

## # A tibble: 3 × 6
##   Model               Accuracy AUC_ROC Precision Recall F1_Score
##   <chr>                  <dbl>   <dbl>     <dbl>  <dbl>    <dbl>
## 1 Logistic Regression    0.822   0.862     0.670  0.561    0.611
## 2 Random Forest          0.810   0.849     0.732  0.373    0.494
## 3 XGBoost                0.834   0.866     0.715  0.558    0.627

# Output comparison table as Markdown
markdown_table <- kable(comparison_table, format = "markdown", digits = 4)

Conclusion

After evaluating three classification models — Logistic Regression, Random Forest, and XGBoost — on multiple performance metrics, XGBoost emerges as the most suitable model for our churn prediction task.

Despite Logistic Regression having slightly higher AUC_ROC (0.8619 vs. 0.8659), XGBoost demonstrates the best overall balance:

• Highest F1 Score (0.6272), indicating strong balance between precision (0.7153) and recall (0.5584).

• Highest Accuracy (0.8345), suggesting strong overall classification.

Recall is crucial in our context, as we aim to minimize false negatives i.e., customers wrongly predicted as staying when they are likely to churn. XGBoost’s recall (0.5584) is significantly better than Random Forest (0.3732) and nearly matches Logistic Regression (0.5613), but with better overall metrics.